When do conflicts between classes manifest as racist? And are there other structures at play besides economic ones? What is the specificity of contemporary racism? How can it be linked to class division in capitalism and the contradictions of the nation-state? To what extent does the phenomenon of racism compel us to rethink nationalism and class struggles? Etienne Balibar and Immanuel Wallerstein explore these questions in this foundational work on racism theory. They demonstrate that conflicts between classes are intertwined with structures beyond just economic ones. The contradictions of racism are evident in the formation of national and ethnic identities as well as in the ambiguous effectiveness of prevailing ideologies.