Throughout European history, people who deny the existence of a God have faced persecution. Atheism here was primarily a confrontation with Christian doctrine. In light of the increasing global persecution of non-religious individuals today, this interdisciplinary and intertemporal volume examines the societal treatment of atheism from the Middle Ages to the 20th century. What are the roots of the defamation of "godless" individuals? Were there theological or legal foundations for condemning and punishing "deniers of God"? What forms of social exclusion were practiced? How did those affected respond to the trials, the burning of their writings, and the revocation of their legal rights? And how did societies outside of Europe, such as in India or East Asia, address the issue of disbelief?.