In traditional Judaism, the study of the Torah and worship were always dominated by men. Female spirituality primarily found its expression in personal prayer and within the home. It was only at the threshold of the 20th century that women were also allowed to engage with religious texts. As a result of political equality, women in many Jewish communities gained the right to vote and have since actively shaped community life. However, in the public and ritual sphere, women do not participate actively. In many places both within and outside of Europe, smaller prayer or study groups have emerged, allowing women to publicly present biblical interpretations within the framework of traditionally conducted yet egalitarian services. Reform Judaism is the only movement that recognizes full equality in the ritual sphere as well.