In the years 1915 and 1916, in the midst of World War I, secret conferences took place in the remote Bernese farming villages of Zimmerwald and Kiental, as well as at the Volkshaus in Bern, which have gone down in world history. The so-called Zimmerwald Movement shaped the international debate within the socialist camp until 1917 and was met with suspicion and often obstruction from the governments. Under the leadership of Swiss Social Democrat Robert Grimm, socialist opponents of the war from neutral countries and both sides of the war fronts discussed their measures to end the conflict. Lenin, Lev Trotsky, Grigory Zinoviev, Pavel Axelrod, and Julius Martov from Russia, Georg Ledebour, Clara Zetkin, and Willi Münzenberg from Germany, Alphonse Merrheim and Albert Bourderon from France, Karl Radek from Poland, Anzelica Balabanova, and Giacinto.