The "long 19th century" - from the French Revolution to the end of World War I - can also be seen from a church historical perspective as an era marked by both breaks and new beginnings, as well as traditions and modernizations. The "short 20th century" - shaped by the consequences of two world wars and fascist and communist dictatorships - presented new challenges to the churches, not least the challenge of secularization. On the other hand, this century is characterized by an ecumenical rapprochement among the denominations, an intensive coming to terms with the past by the churches, and their participation in the democratic reconstruction. The two major sections, which pay special attention to developments in Germany and Europe, are complemented by a contribution to the history of Orthodoxy.