The October Revolution of 1917 was seen by many European intellectuals as a beacon: whether observed with fear or welcomed with enthusiasm, it was the event of the era that demanded an intellectual response. In light of the centrifugal forces of the Weimar Republic and the deep crisis of Western liberal civilization felt by many, Hugo Fischer also looked eastward to find in Lenin's politics and the councils alternatives for a form of governance beyond parliamentarism and dictatorship. Even coming from the national right, he views Lenin without ideological bias, even attributing to him a politics free of ideology that, driven by rational motives, aims at seizing and maintaining power: "Lenin is no more a 'Communist' than Richelieu was a 'Monarchist'." With this visionary analysis, the s.