They had witnessed the failure of the 1905 revolution and were coming to terms with the Russian intelligentsia, to which they themselves belonged. In defeat, they saw the opportunity for a radical self-reflection. This is how historian Karl Schlögel described the initiative of authors like Pyotr Struve, an early companion and later opponent of Lenin, who in 1909, together with Nikolai Berdyaev, Semyon Frank, and Sergei Bulgakov, published the legendary essay collection "Way Signs on the Crisis of the Russian Intelligentsia." They and the other authors, including jurists, national economists, social theorists, and philosophers of religion, placed their hopes on liberalization and welcomed the February Revolution of 1917. The Bolshevik seizure of power in October confirmed their worst fears. In light of these events, they compiled a volume on the intellectual state of Russia, which was published in 1918.